Tables of Serum Chemical Constituents

Tables of Serum Chemical Constituents

Small (non-protein) species

Serum Analyte	Reference Ranges	Increased In	Decreased In
Acetone	<1 mg/dL	Diabetic ketoacidosis, Starvation, Glycogen storage disease, Alcoholic intoxication	NA
Acetoacetate	<1 mg/dL	Diabetic ketoacidosis, Starvation, Glycogen storage disease, Alcoholic intoxication	NA
Ammonia	Adult: 15 – 110 ug/dL Neonate: 90 – 150 ug/dL	Hepatitis, Cirrhosis, Reye syndrome, GI bleeding/obstruction	Malignant hypertension
Bilirubin, direct (conjugated)	Adult/Child: 0.1 – 0.3 mg/dL	Jaundice, Biliary obstruction, Drug cholestasis	NA
Bilirubin, indirect (unconjugated)	Adult/Child: 0.2 – 0.8 mg/dL Neonate: 1- 12 mg/dL	Hemolytic jaundice, HDN, Hepatitis, Cirrhosis, Sepsis, Pernicious anemia, Sickle cell anemia, Transfusion reaction	NA
Bilirubin, total	Adult/Child: 0.2 – 1.0 mg/dL Neonate: 1.9 - 12 mg/dL Critical: >15.0 mg/dL	Hemolytic jaundice, HDN, Hepatitis, Cirrhosis, Sepsis, Pernicious anemia, Sickle cell anemia, Transfusion reaction	NA
Calcium, ionized	Adult: 4.5 – 5.6 mg/dL Neonate: 4.20 – 5.58 mg/dL	Hyperparathyroidism, renal/lung carcinoma-producing PTH, Paget’s disease, Vitamin D intoxication, Addison’s disease, Acromegaly	Hypoparathyroidism, Renal failure, Rickets, Vitamin D deficiency, Osteomalacia, Alkalosis, Pancreatitis.
Calcium, total	Adult: 9.0 – 10.5 mg/dL Neonate: 9.0 – 10.6 mg/dL Critical: <6.0 or >14.0 mEq/L	Hyperparathyroidism, renal/lung carcinoma-producing PTH, Paget’s disease, Vitamin D intoxication, Addison’s disease, Acromegaly	Hypoparathyroidism, Renal failure, Rickets, Vitamin D deficiency, Osteomalacia, Alkalosis, Pancreatitis. Critical: <6.0
Carbon Dioxide Content (CO₂ Content)	Adult: 23 – 30 mEq/L Infant: 20 – 28 mEq/L Neonate: 13 – 22 mEq/L (as bicarbonate, HCO₃^-) Critical: <6.0 mEq/L	Severe diarrhea, Starvation, Severe vomiting, Aldosteronisn, Emphysema, Metabolic alkalosis	Renal failure, Salicylate toxicity, Diabetic ketoacidosis, Metabolic acidosis, Shock
Chloride	Adult/Child: 98 – 106 mEq/L Critical: <80 or >115 mEq/L	Dehydration, Cushing’s syndrome, Metabolic acidosis, Hyperventilation, Respiratory alkalosis, Renal dysfunction	Overhydration, CHF, Vomiting, Respiratory acidosis, Addison’s disease, Metabolic alkalosis, Aldosteronism, Burns
Cholesterol, total	Adult/Child: 120 – 200 mg/dL Infant: 70 – 175 mg/dL Neonate: 53 – 135 mg/dL	Hypothyroidism, Diabets Mellitus, Nephrotic syndrome, Hypertension, Atherosclerosis, MI, Nephrosis, High-cholesterol diet, Nephrosis	Malabsorption, Sepsis, Malnutrition, Liver disease, AMI
Creatinine	Adult/Child: 0.5 – 1.2 mg/dL	Nephritis, Renal necrosis, Diabetic nephropathy, CHF, Atherosclerosis, Acromegaly, Shock	Debilitation, Decreased muscle mass (Muscular systrophy, Myasthenia gravis)
Glucose, fasting	Adult/Child: 65 – 110 mg/dL Neonate: 30 – 60 mg/dL Critical: <40 or >400 mg/dL	Diabetes mellitus, Cushing’s syndrome, Acute pancreatitis, Corticosteroid therapy, Acromegaly	Insulin overdose, Hypothyroidism, Hypopituitarism, Addison’s disease, liver disease, starvation
Iron	Adult/Child: 50 – 175 ug/dL Neonate: 100 – 250 ug/dL	Hemosiderosis, Hemochromatosis, Hemolytic anemia, Hepatitis, Hepatic necrosis, Iron poisoning	Inadequate dietary iron, Chronic blood loss, Iron deficiency anemia, Inadequate iron absorption
Lactate	5-12 mg/dL	Shock, Tissue ischemia, Severe liver disease, Carbon monoxide poisoning	NA
Lead (whole blood)	Adult: <40 ug/dL Child: <25 ug/dL Critical: >40 ug/dL Toxic: >100 ub/dL	-	-
Magnesium	Adult: 1.2 – 2.1 mEq/L Child: 1.4 – 1.8 mEq/L Neonate: 1.2 – 1.8 mEq/L Critical: <0.5 or >3.0 mEq/L	Renal insufficiency, Uncontrolled diabetes, Addison’s disease, Hypothyroidism, Magnesium antacid ingestion	Malnutrition, Malabsorption, Hypoparathyroidism, Alcoholism, Diabetic acidosis
Phosphorus, inorganic (as phosphate)	Adult: 3.4 – 4.5 mg/dL Child: 4.5 – 6.5 mg/dL Neonate: 4.3 – 9.3 mg/dL Critical: <1.0 mg/sL	Renal failure, Increased intake, Acromegaly, Hypoparathyroidism, Bone metastisis, Sarcoidosis, Hypocalcemia, Liver disease, Acidosis	Malnutrition, Sepsis, Hyperparathyroidism, Hypercalcemia, Alkalosis, Alcoholism, Vitamin D deficiency, Rickets, Sepsis, Alkalosis
Potassium	Adult: 3.5 – 5.0 mEq/L Neonate: 3.9 – 5.9 mEq/L Critical: <2.5 or >6.5 mEq/L (Neonate: <2.5 or >8.0 mEq/L)	Excessive intake, Renal failure, Acidosis, Hypoaldosteronism, Hemolysis, Dehydration, Tissue crush injury	Deficient intake, Burns, Diarrhea or vomiting, Diuresis, Cushing’s syndrome, Licorice ingestion, Ascites, Cystic fibrosis
Sodium	Adult/Child: 136 – 145 mEq/L Neonate: 134 – 144 mEq/L Critical: <120 or >160 mEq/L	Increased intake, Cushing’s syndrome, Hyperaldosteronism, Profound sweating, Diabetes insipidus	Decreased intake, Ascites, Addison’s disease, CHF, Diuresis, Diarrhea or vomiting, Edema, Pleural effusion
Thyroid Uptake (TU, T₃-Uptake)	25 – 35%	Interpretation is dependent on Thyroxine and FTI values	Interpretation is dependent on Thyroxine and FTI values
Thyroxine, free (free T₄)	Adult: 0.8 – 2.7 ng/dL Child: 0.8 – 2.0 ng/dL Neonate: 2.0 – 6.0 ng/dL	Grave’s disease, Plummer’s disease, Toxic thyroid adenoma, Acute thyroiditis, Hyperthyroidism	Hypothyroidism, Myxedema, Pituitary insufficiency, Cirrhosis, Hypothalmic failure, Renal failure, Cushing’s syndrome, Liver diseases
Thyroxine, total (total T₄)	Adult: 4.0 – 12.0 ug/dL Child: 5.0 – 15.0 ug/dL Neonate: 10.0 – 22.0 ug/dL Critical: <2.0 or >20.0 ug/dL	Grave’s disease, Plummer’s disease, Toxic thyroid adenoma, Acute thyroiditis, Hyperthyroidism	Hypothyroidism, Myxedema, Pituitary insufficiency, Cirrhosis, Hypothalmic failure, Renal failure, Cushing’s syndrome, Liver diseases
Triglycerides	Adult Male: 40 – 160 mg/dL Adult Female: 35 – 135 mg/dL Child: 30 – 163 mg/dL (age/sex dependent)	Glycogen storage disease, Hyperlipidemia, Diabetes mellitus, CHD, Nephrotic syndrome, Hypertension, Cirrhosis, Pregnancy, MI	Malabsorption, Malnutrition, Hyperthyroidism
Triiodothyronine (T₃) (T₃ RIA)	Adult: 40 – 205 ng/dL Child: 80 – 270 ng/dL Neonate: 100 – 740 ng/dL	Grave’s disease, Plummer’s disease, Toxic thyroid adenoma, Acute thyroiditis, Hyperthyroidism	Hypothyroidism, Myxedema, Pituitary insufficiency, Cirrhosis, Hypothalmic failure, Renal failure, Cushing’s syndrome, Liver diseases
Urea Nitrogen (BUN)	Adult: 8.0 – 22 mg/dL Child: 5.0 – 18 mg/dL Neonate: 3.0 – 12.0 mg/dL	Hypovolemia, Shock, Burns, Dehydration, CHF, MI, High protein intake, Starvation, Sepsis, Renal disease, Renal failure, Ureteral obstruction	Liver failure, Malnutrition, Malabsorption, Nephrotic syndrome
Uric Acid	Adult Male: 2.1 – 8.5 mg/dL Adult Female: 2.0 – 6.6 mg/dL Child: 2.5 – 5.5 mg/dL	Gout, Multiple myeloma, Leukemias, Renal disease, Acidosis, Toxemia of pregnancy, Alcoholism, Shock, Hypothyroidism, High purine diet	Wilson’s disease, Fanconi syndrome, Lead poisioning, Yellow liver atrophy

Enzymes

Serum Analyte	Reference Ranges	Increased In	Decreased In
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT, SGPT)	Adult/Child: 5 – 35 IU/L	Hepatitis, Cirrhosis, Hepatic tumor, Hepatotoxic drugs, Obstructive jaundice, MI, Muscle trauma, Myositis, Infectious Mononucleosis	NA
Aldolase	Adult: 3.0 - 8.2 SL U/dl	Hepatitis, Muscular dystrophy, MI, polymyositis, Muscle injuries	Late Muscular dystrophy, Muscle-wasting disease, Fructose intolerance
Acid phosphatase, prostatic	Adult male: 0.2 – 3.5 U/L Adult female: 0.0 – 0.8 U/L	Prostatic carcinoma, Multiple myeloma, Prostate manipulation, Prostatitis, Cancer of breast or bone, Cirrhosis, Hyperparathyroidism, Renal impairment	NA
Acid phosphatase, total	Adult male: 2.5 – 11.7 U/L Adult female: 0.3 – 9.2 U/L	Prostatic carcinoma, Multiple myeloma, Prostate manipulation, Prostatitis, Cancer of breast or bone, Cirrhosis, Hyperparathyroidism, Renal impairment	NA
Alkaline phosphatase, total	Adult: 30 – 120 U/L Child/adolescent: <2yr: 85 – 235 U/L 2 – 8 yr: 65 – 210 U/L 9 – 15 yr: 60 – 300 U/L 16 – 21 yr: 30 – 200 U/L	Cirrhosis, Biliary obstruction, Hepatic tumor, 3^rd Trimester pregnancy, Metastatic tumor to bone, Healing fracture, RA, Sarcoidosis	Hypothyroidism, Malnutrition, Pernicious anemia, Scurvy, Celiac diseade, High Vit. B intake
Amylase, alpha	30 – 220 U/L	Acute pancreatitis, peptic ulcer, Necrotic bowel, Acute cholecystitis, Mumps, Pulmonary infarction, Diabetic ketoacidosis, Duodenal obstruction	NA
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)	Adult: 23 – 57 U/mL Children: much higher	Sarcoidosis, Gaucher’s disease, Tuberculosis, Leprosy, Cirrhosis, Histoplasmosis, Hodgkin's disease, Myeloma, Pulmonary fibrosis, Scleroderma, Amyloidosis, Hyperthyroidism, <20 yr old	NA
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST, SGOT)	Adult: 0 – 35 U/L Newborn: 15 – 60 U/L	MI, Hepatitis, Cirrhosis, Drug-induced liver injury, Hepatic metastasis/necrosis, Infectious mononucleosis, Muscle trauma/diseases, Acute pancreatitis	Acute renal disease, Diabetic ketoacidosis, Pregnancy, Renal dialysis
Cholinesterase, pseudo- (Pseudocholinesterase)	5 – 15 mg/L 7 – 19 kU/L	Reticulocytosis, Hyperlipidemia, Nephrosis, Diabetes	Organic phosphate insecticide poisoning, Hepatocellular disease, Congenital enzyme deficiency, Malnutrition, Drugs: atropine, caffeine, codeine, estrogens, morphine, neostigmine, phenothiazines, theophylline, quinidine, vitamin K
Creatine phosphokinase, total (CPK, CK)	Adult male: 55 – 170 U/L Adult female: 30 – 135 U/L Newborn: 68- 580 U/L	Cardiac muscle disease/injury, Skeletal muscle disease/injury, CNS (brain) disease/injury, Strenuous physical exercise, IM injections	NA
Creatine phospokinase, BB isoenzyme (CPK-BB, CPK1)	0.0 % of total CPK	CNS diseases, Adenocarcinoma of breast or lung, Pulmonary infarction	NA
Creatine phosphokinase, MB isoenzyme (CPK-MB, CPK2)	0.0 % of total CPK	AMI, Cardiac aneurysm surgery, Cardiac ischemia, Cardiac defibrillation, Myocarditis, Ventricular arrhythmias	NA
Creatine phosphokinase, MM isoenzyme (CPK-MM, CPK3)	100 % of total CPK	Rhabdomyolysis, Muscular dystrophy, Myositis, IM injections, Muscle injury, convulsions, Hypokalemia, Hypothyroidism	NA
Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGTP, g-GTP, g-GT)	Adult male, female >45 yr: 8 – 38 U/L Adult female <45 yr: 5 – 27 U/L Child: same as adult Newborn: 40 – 190 U/L	Hepatitis, Cirrhosis, Hepatic necrosis, Hepatic carcinoma, Hepatotoxic drugs, Cholestasis, MI, Pancreatitis, Pancreatic carcinoma, Infectious Mononucleosis, CMV, Reye’s syndrome	NA
Lactate dehydrogenase, total (LDH, LD)	0 – 4 day: 290 – 775 U/L 4 – 10 day: 545 – 2000 U/L 10d – 2 yr: 180 – 430 U/L 2 – 12 yr: 110 – 295 U/L 12 – 60 yr: 100 – 190 U/L > 60 yr: 110 – 210 U/L	MI, Pulmonary disease, Hepatic disease, Anemias, Muscle disease or injury, Renal parenchymal disease, Intestinal ischemia, Testicular carcinoma, Lymphoma, Advanced carcinoma, Pancreatitis, Hemolysis	Ascorbic acid
Lactate dehydrogenase, isoenzymes (LDH-1, LDH-2, LDH-3, LDH-4, LDH-5)	LDH-1: 17 – 27 % of total LDH-2: 27 – 37 % of total LDH-3: 18 – 25 % of total LDH-4: 3 – 8 % of total LDH-5: 0 – 5 % of total	LDH-1: Cardiac LDH-2: RE system LDH-3: Lung and other tissues LDH-4: Kidney, Placenta, Pancreas LDH-5: Liver, Muscle	Ascorbic acid
Leucine aminopeptidase (LAP, arylamidase)	Adult male: 80 – 200 U/mL Adult female: 75 – 185 U/mL	Hepatitis, Cirrhosis, Hepatic ischemia, Hepatic necrosis, Hepatic carcinoma, Hepatotoxic drugs, Cholestasis, Gallstones	NA
Lipase	0 – 417 U/L	Acute pancreatitis, Chronic pancreatitis, Pancreatic carcinoma, Acute cholecystitis, Cholangitis, Extrahepatic duct obstruction, Renal failure, Bowel obstruction, Salivary gland inflammation or tumor, Peptic ulcer	NA
Renin (PRA)	Adult (upright, sodium-restricted diet) <40 yr: 2.9 – 24.0 ng/mL/hr >40 yr: 2.9 – 10.8 ng/mL/hr Adult (upright, sodium-replete diet) <40 yr: 0.1 – 4.3 ng/mL/hr >40 yr: 0.1 – 3.0 ng/dL/hr	Hypertension, Chronic renal failure, Salt-losing GI disease (vomiting/dirrhea), Addison’s disease, Renin-producing renal tumor, Cirrhosis, Hyperkalemia, Hemorrhage	Primary hyperaldosteronism, Steroid therapy, Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Serum or Plasma Hormones, Hormone Precursors and Derivatives

Hormone	Ref. Intervals	Constitution	Source/Target	Function
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)	Baseline TSH: <10 m U/mL Stimulated TSH (following iv TRH): 2´ baseline	Peptide (3 aa)*	H/Anterior pituitary lobe	Release of TSH and PRL
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) or luteinizing hormone- releasing hormone (LHRH)	-	Peptide (10 aa)	H/Anterior pituitary lobe	Release of LH and FSH
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)	-	Polypeptide (41 aa)	H/Anterior pituitary lobe	Release of ACTH and ß-LPH
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)	-	Polypeptide (40 aa)	H/Anterior pituitary lobe	Release of GH
Somatostatin± (SS) or growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)	-	Peptide (14 aa)	H/Anterior pituitary lobe	Suppression of GH and TSH; inhibition of gastrin, VIP, GIP, secretin, motilin, and insulin
Prolactin-releasing factors (PRF)	-	Peptide?	H/Anterior pituitary lobe	Release of PRL
Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF)	0 – 20 pg/mL (as dopamine)	Dopamine	H/Anterior pituitary lobe	Suppression of PRL
Thyrotropin or thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)	40 – 200 mg/dL	Glycoprotein‡ (a , 89 aa; ß, 112 aa)	AP/Thyroid gland	Stimulation of thyroid hormone formation and secretion
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)	Male: (<45 yr): 4 – 25 IU/L (³ 45 yr): 2 – 14 IU/L Female: (Non-preg, 18 – 40 yr): 4 – 30 IU/L (Midcycle): 10 – 90 IU/L (Postmenopausal): 40 – 250 IU/L	Glycoprotein‡ (a , 89 aa; ß, 115 aa)	AP/Ovary AP/Testis	Growth of follicles and, with LH, secretion of estrogens and ovulation. Development of seminiferous tubules, spermatogenesis
Luteinizing hormone (LH)	Female: (Non-preg, 18 – 40 yr): 1 – 9 IU/L (Midcycle): >11 IU/L (Postmenopausal): 13 – 60 IU/L Male: 6 – 23 IU/L	Glycoprotein‡ (a , 89 aa; ß, 115 aa)	AP/Ovary AP/Testis	Ovulation, formation of corpora lutea, secretion of progesterone. Stimulation of interstitial tissue; secretion of androgens.
Prolactin (PRL)	Female: 80 – 530 mIU/L Male: 80 – 350 mIU/L	Protein (198 aa)	AP/Mammary gland	Proliferation of mammary gland; initiation of milk secretion; antagonist of insulin action
Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin	Female: 0 – 8.0 m g/L Male: 0 – 4.0 m g/L	Protein (191 aa)	AP/Body as a whole	Growth of bone and muscle
ß-Lipotropin (ß-LPH)	-	Polypeptide (91 aa)	AP/Unknown	Precursor of ß-MSH and the endorphins
Corticotropin or adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)	1.2 – 15.6 pmol/L (ng/L = 4.5 ´ pmol/L)	Polypeptide (39 aa)	AP/Adrenal cortex	Stimulation of adrenocortical steroid formation and secretion
ß-Endorphin (ß-END)±¶	5 – 35 pmol/L	Polypeptide (31 aa)	AP/Brain	Endogenous opiate; raising of pain threshold and influence on extrapyramidal motor activity
a -Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (a -MSH)	-	Peptide (13 aa)	AP/Skin	Dispersion of pigment granules, darkening of skin
Leu-enkephalin (LEK)±¶ and met-enkephalin (MEK)±¶	-	Peptide (5 aa)	AP/Brain	Endogenous opiate; raising of pain threshold and influence on extrapyramidal motor activity
Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)	0.0 – 7.0 pmol/L	Peptide (9 aa)	PP/Arterioles PP/Renal tubules	Elevation of blood pressure. Water reabsorption
Oxytocin	<3.2 m IU/mL Oxytocin challenge test: Negative	Peptide (9 aa)	PP/Smooth muscle (uterus, mammary gland)	Contraction, action in parturition and in sperm transport, ejection of milk
Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HI)	5 – 220 ng/mL	Indoleamine	PG/Cardiovascular, respiratory, and gastrointestinal systems, brain	Neurotransmitter; stimulation or inhibition of various smooth muscles and nerves; possible role in mental illness
Melatonin	-	Indoleamine	PG/Hypothalamus	Suppression of gonadotropin and GH secretion; induction of sleep
Thyroxine (T₄) and triiodothyronine (T₃) (free T_4,free T₃)	T₄: (<1 m): 0.8 – 2.2 ng/dL (1-6 m): 0.8 - 1.8 ng/dL (6m-1y): 0.8 – 1.6 ng/dL (1-12y): 0.9 – 1.4 ng/dL (>12 yr): 0.8 – 1.5 ng/dL T₃: 2.2 – 4.0 pg/mL	Iodoamino acids	TG/General body tissue	Stimulation of oxygen consumption and metabolic rate of tissue
Calcitonin or thyrocalcitonin	<15 pmol/L	Polypeptide (32 aa)	TG/Skeleton	Inhibition of calcium resorption; lowering of plasma calcium and phosphate
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone	1.7 – 7.3 pmol/L	Polypeptide (84 aa)	PTG/Skeleton, kidney, gastrointestinal tract	Regulation of calcium and phosphorus metabolism
Cortisol	AM peak: 200 – 650 nmol/L PM trough: <50% peak	Steroid	AC/General body tissue	Metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats; inflammation, resistance to infection; hypersensitivity
Aldosterone	100 – 800 pmol/L	Steroid	AC/Kidney	Salt and water balance
Norepinephrine and epinephrine	Epinephrine (pg/mL) 2-10 d: 36-400 11d-3m: 55-200 4-11mo: 55-440 12-23m: 36-640 24-35m: 18-440 3-17yr: 18-460 18+ yr: 10-200 Norepinephrine (pg/mL) 2-10 d: 170-1180 11d-3m: 370–2080 4-11mo: 270–1120 12-23m: 68–1810 24-35m: 170–1470 3-17yr: 85–1250 18+ yr: 80–520	Aromatic amines	AM/Sympathetic receptors	Stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
Epinephrine	<570 pmol/L (see above)	Aromatic amine	AM/Liver and muscle, adipose tissue	Glycogenolysis Lipolysis
Estrogens	Female estradiol (pmol/L): Early follicular: 100 – 200 Preovulatory: 500 – 1700 Luteal: 500 – 900 Postmenopausal: 70 – 200 Male: 0 – 283 pmol/L Estriol: Varies with gestational age (increases thru pregnancy)	Phenolic steroids	O/Female accessory sex organs	Development of secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone	Female: (nmol/L) Follicular: 2.0 – 4.5 Luteal: 7.0 – 70.0	Stroid	O/Female accessory reproductive structure	Preparation of the uterus for ovum implantation, maintenance of pregnancy
Relaxin	-	Polypeptide	O/Uterus	Inhibition of myometrial contraction
Inhibin	Female (>16 yr): 0 – 78 pg/mL	Polypeptide	O/Hypothalamus	Suspected role in the control of FSH secretion
Testosterone	Male: 300 – 1200 ng/dL Female: 30 – 95 ng/dL	Steroid	T/Male accessory sex organs	Development of secondary sex characteristics, maturation, and normal function
Inhibin	Female (>16 yr): 0 – 78 pg/mL	Polypeptide	T/Hypothalamus	Suspected role in the control of FSH secretion
Estrogens	Female estradiol (pmol/L): Early follicular: 100 – 200 Preovulatory: 500 – 1700 Luteal: 500 – 900 Postmenopausal: 70 – 200 Male: 0 – 283 pmol/L Estriol: Varies with gestational age (increases thru pregnancy)	Phenolic steroids	P/Female accessory sex organs	Development of secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone	Female: (nmol/L) Follicular: 2.0 – 4.5 Luteal: 7.0 – 70.0	Steroid	P/Female accessory reproductive structure	Preparation of the uterus for ovum implantation, maintenance of pregnancy
Relaxin	-	Polypeptide	P/Uterus	Inhibition of myometrial contraction
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) or choriogonadotropin	Female: (b -subunit) (Non-preg): <5 mIU/L	Glycoprotein‡ (a , 92 aa; ß, 144 aa)	P/Ovary AP/Testis	Ovulation, formation of corpora lutea, secretion of progesterone. Prolongation of corpus luteal function; suspected role in steroidogenesis during fetal life. Stimulation of interstitial tissue; secretion of androgens.
Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) or human placental lactogen (hPL)	-	Protein (191 aa)	P/Mammary gland	Proliferation of mammary gland; initiation of milk secretion; antagonist of insulin action
Insulin, free	9 – 80 pmol/L	Polypeptide§	PAN/Most cells	Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism; lipogenesis
Glucagon	<190 ng/L	Polypeptide (29 aa)	PAN/Liver	Glycogenolysis
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)	40 – 300 ng/L (fasting)	Polypeptide (36 aa)	PAN/Gastrointestinal tract	Increased gut motility and gastric emptying; inhibition of gallbladder contraction
Gastrin¶	Fasting: <90 ng/L Random: <180 ng/L	Peptide (17 aa)	GI/Stomach	Secretion of gastric acid, gastric mucosal growth
Secretin	12 – 75 pg/mL	Polypeptide (27 aa)	GI/Pancreas	Secretion of pancreatic bicarbonate and digestive enzymes
Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin (CCK-PZ)¶	-	Polypeptide (33 aa)	GI/Gallbladder and pancreas	Stimulation of gallbladder contraction and secretion of pancreatic enzymes
Motilin	-	Polypeptide (22 aa)	GI/Gastrointestinal tract	Stimulation of gastrointestinal motility
Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)¶	<20 pmol/L <50 pg/mL	Polypeptide (28 aa)	GI/Gastrointestinal tract	Neurotransmitter; relaxation of smooth muscles of gut and of circulation; increase of release of hormones and secretion of water and electrolytes from pancreas and gut
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP)	-	Polypeptide (42 aa)	GI/Gastrointestinal tract	Inhibition of gastric secretion and motility; increase of insulin secretion
Bombesin¶	-	Peptide (14 aa)	GI/Gastrointestinal tract	Stimulation of release of various hormones and pancreatic enzymes, smooth muscle contractions and hypothermia, changes in cardiovascular and renal function
Neurotensin¶	-	Peptide (13 aa)	GI/Gastrointestinal tract and hypothalamus (gut and brain)	Uncertain
Substance P (SP)¶	-	Peptide (11 aa)	GI/Gastrointestinal tract and brain	Sensory neurotransmitter, analgesic; increase in contraction of gastrointestinal smooth muscle; potent vasoactive hormone; promotion of salivation, increased release of histamine
1,25-(OH)₂ Vitamin D	22.5 – 94.3 nmol/L	Sterol	K/Intestine K/Bone K/Kidney	Facilitation of calcium and phosphorus absorption Increase in bone resorption in conjunction with PTH. Increase in reabsorption of filtered calcium
Erythropoietin	12 – 28 U/L	Glycoprotein	K/Bone marrow	Stimulation of red cell formation
Insulin-like growth factor I	(ng/mL) 2m - 5y: 17 – 248 6 – 8 yr: 88 – 474 9-11 y Male: 110 – 565 9-11 y Fem: 117 – 771 12-15y Male: 202 – 957 12-15y Fem: 261 – 1096 16-24y M/F: 182 – 780 25-39y M/F: 114 – 492 40-54y M/F: 90 – 360 ³ 55 yr M/F: 71 – 290	Peptide (70 aa)	L/Most cells	Stimulation of cellular and linear growth
Insulin-like growth factor II	-	Peptide (67 aa)	L/Most cells	Insulin-like activity
Thymosin and thymopoietin	-	Peptides (49 and 28 aa)	THY/Lymphocytes	Maturation of T-lymphocytes
Atrial natriuretic factor (Atrial natriuretic peptide, ANF, ANP, Atriopeptin)	4 – 27 pmol/L	Peptide (28 aa)	HT/Vascular, renal, and adrenal tissue	Regulation of blood volume and blood pressure
Brain natriuretic factor (Brain natriuretic peptide, BNF, BNP)	5 – 99 pg/mL	Peptide (17 aa)	HT/Vascular, brain tissue	Regulation of blood volume and blood pressure
Parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTH-RP)	<5 pmol/L	Peptide (141 aa)	MCT/Kidney, bone	Conjectural; PTH-like actions; tumor marker
Growth factors (e.g., epidermal growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factor family, platelet-derived growth factor, nerve growth factors)	-	Polypeptides	MCT/	Stimulation of cellular growth
Cytokines (e.g., interleukins 1 - 9, tumor necrosis factor, interferons)	-	Polypeptides	MLM/	Stimulation or inhibition of cellular growth

aa: Amino acid residues.
±Also produced by gastrointestinal tract.
‡Glycoprotein hormone composed of two dissimilar peptides. The a -chain is similar in structure or identical; the ß-chain differs for each hormone and confers specificity.
§Two chains linked by disulfide bonds: A, 21 aa; B, 30 aa.
¶Also produced in the brain.
>Source abbreviations: H = Hypothalamus, AP = Anterior Pituitary, PP = Posterior Pituitary, PG = Pineal Gland, TG = Thyroid Gland, PTG = Parathyroid Gland, AC = Adrenal Cortex, AM = Adrenal Mrdulla, O = Ovary, T = Testis, P = Placenta, PAN = Pancreas, GI = Gastrointestinal tract, K = Kidney, L = Liver, THY = Thymus, HT = Heart, MCT = Multiple Cell Types, MLM = Monocytes/Lymphocytes/Macrophages

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